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Notes
1 Research methodologies are increasingly
including measures of the personal
characteristics of adolescents, their
family situations and community
characteristics and norms.
2 The United Nations Theme Group on
HIV/AIDS in China. 2002. HIV/AIDS:
China’s Titanic Peril. 2001 Update of the
AIDS Situation and Needs Assessment
Report. Beijing, China: UNAIDS.
3 Monitoring the AIDS Pandemic (MAP)
Network. 2001. “The Status and Trends
of HIV/AIDS/STI Epidemics in Asia and
the Pacific”. Report presented at the
MAP Meeting in Melbourne, Australia,
4 October 2001.
4 Rosen, J. 2001. Formulating and
Implementing National Youth Policy:
Lessons from Bolivia and the Dominican
Republic. Washington, D.C.: FOCUS on
Young Adults, Pathfinder International.
5 Greene, M., et al. 2002. In this
Generation: Sexual & Reproductive Health
Policies for a Youthful World. Washington,
D.C.: Population Action International.
6 Ministry of Health. 2002. National
Standards and Guidelines for Reproductive
Health Care Services. Hanoi: Ministry of
Health, Government of Viet Nam.
7 UNFPA. 1999. Annual Report 1999.
New York: UNFPA.
8 Kiragu, K., et al. 1998. Adolescent
Reproductive Health Needs in Kenya: A
Communication Response Evaluation of
The Kenya Initiatives Project. Baltimore,
Maryland: Population Communication
Services, John Hopkins University.
9 United Nations. 1989. Convention on
the Rights of the Child: General Assembly
Resolution 25(XLIV): 44th Session:
Supplement No. 49, (A/RES/44/25,
reprinted in 28 I.L.M. 1448): opened for
signature 26 January 1990, paragraph
29.1(b); United Nations. 1979. Convention
on the Elimination of All Forms of
Discrimination against Women: Adopted
and Opened for Signature, Ratification and
Accession by General Assembly Resolution
34/180 of 18 December 1979, article 10c.
New York: United Nations; United
Nations. 1993. Vienna Declaration and
Programme of Action: World Conference
on Human Rights (A/CONF.157/24),
paragraph 18. New York: United Nations;
United Nations. 1995. Population and
Development, vol. 1: Programme of Action
adopted at the International Conference on
Population and Development: Cairo, 5-13
September 1994, Principle 10, paragraphs
4.3(c), 4.12, 4.16(a, b), 4.17, 4.29, 7.39,
7.48 and11.16. New York: Department of
Economic and Social Information and
Policy Analysis, United Nations; United
Nations. 1996. The Beijing Declaration
and the Platform for Action: Fourth World
Conference on Women: Beijing, China: 4-15
September 1995 (DPI/1766/Wom),
paragraphs 83(i), 107(e), 125(e), 126(b),
227, 230(f), 231c, 233(c, d, f, g) and
278(b, c). New York: Department of
Public Information, United Nations;
United Nations. 1999. Key Actions for the
Further Implementation of the Programme
of Action of the International Conference
on Population and Development
(A/S-21/5/Add.1), paragraphs 3 and 40.
New York: United Nations; and United
Nations. 2000. Resolution Adopted by the
General Assembly: S-23/3: Further Actions
and Initiatives to Implement the Beijing
Declaration and Platform for Action
(A/RES/S-23/3), paragraph 99(a).
New York: United Nations.
10 United Nations 1995, paragraphs 7.38,
12.13, 12.14, 12.20, 12.22; United Nations
1996, paragraphs 109(d, and f), 206(a,
b, i, and j), and 231e; and United Nations
1999, paragraphs 5, 37.
11 United Nations 1989, paragraph 3.1;
United Nations 1995, paragraphs 6.7(b)
and 7.21; United Nations 1996, paragraphs
107(e), 110(a, and e),111(a), and
267; United Nations 1999, paragraphs
21(b), 40, 42, 45, 52(b), and 73(c); and
United Nations 2000, paragraphs 72(g),
and 79(f).
12 United Nations 1979, paragraphs 7(c),
and 14.2(a); United Nations 1995, paragraphs
4.3(b), 4.4(a), 7.9, 7.18, 15.8,
15.9, and 15.10; United Nations 1996,
paragraphs 106(s), 108(a, and j), 233(f),
and 295; and United Nations 2000,
paragraphs 51, 52(c), 76, and 81.
13 United Nations 1989, paragraphs 12.1,
and 13; United Nations 1995, paragraphs
6.15, 7.43, 7.47, and 11.20; United
Nations 1996, paragraphs 111(b), and
284(a, and b); United Nations 1999,
paragraphs 21(b), 73(c), 83, and 90;
United Nations 2000, paragraphs 79(f),
and 95(b, and c).
14 Senderowitz, J. 2000. “A Review of
Program Approaches to Adolescent
Reproductive Health.” Poptech
Assignment. No. 2000.176. Arlington,
Virginia: Population Technical
Assistance Project.
15 Chibbamulilo, P. 1997. A Report on the
Mini-Participatory Learning and Action
(PLA) Exercise for the JSI/SEATS
Programme in Zambia. Lusaka, Zambia:
Family Planning Service Expansion and
Technical Support Project, John Snow
International.
16 MacLean, A. 1999. Sewing a Better
Future: A Report of Discussions with Young
Garment Factory Workers about Life, Work
and Sexual Health. Washington, D.C.:
CARE International, Cambodia, and
FOCUS on Young Adults.
17 Cheetham, N., R. Thiombiano, and S. Ky.
2003. “Community Participation to
Improve Youth Sexual and Reproductive
Health in Burkina Faso.” Unpublished
project summary. Washington, D.C.:
Advocates for Youth.
18 Khan, S. A., and M. Ahmed. 2001.
“BRAC, Bangladesh: Community
Mobilization to Support Adolescent
Development.” FOCUS Project
Highlights. Washington, D.C.: FOCUS on
Young Adults, Pathfinder International.
Web site: www.pathfind.org/pf/pubs/
focus/Project%20Highlights/BRAC.htm,
accessed 6 January 2003.
19 Micklewright, J. 2002. “Social Exclusion
and Children: A European View for a
US Debate.” Innocenti Working Papers.
No. 90. Florence, Italy: Innocenti
Research Centre, UNICEF.
20 Lansdown, G. 2001. Promoting Children’s
Participation in Democratic Decision-
Making. UNICEF Insight No. 6. Florence,
Italy: Innocenti Research Center,
UNICEF. Web site: www.unicef-icdc.org/publications/pdf/insight6.pdf,
accessed 19 April 2003.
21 Cornwall, A., and A. Welbourn (eds.).
2002. Realizing Rights: Transforming
Approaches to Sexual and Reproductive
Well-being. London: Zed Books.
22 See: UNICEF. 2002. The State of the
World’s Children 2002: Leadership (Sales
No. E.02.XX.1). New York: UNICEF.
23 Faulkner, K., and J. Knott. 2002.
“Institutionalising Youth Participation
in a Large International Organisation:
Experiences from the International
Planned Parenthood Federation.”
Ch. 2 in Cornwall and Welbourn 2002.
24 Lansdown 2001.
25 Ibid.
26 See: UNESCO. n.d. “Who is Who:
Directory of International Youth-led/
Youth-serving Organisations.” Paris:
UNESCO. Web site: www.unesco.org/
youth/ONGRepertoire.htm, accessed
8 June 2003.
27 Russell, J., and X. Solórzano. 2001.
Adolescent and Youth Policy: The
Experiences of Colombia, Dominican
Republic and Nicaragua. Washington,
D.C.: Adolescent Health and
Development, PAHO, WHO.
28 See web site: www.elige.org.mx/Quienes_somos.htm, accessed
20 January 2003.
29 TakingItGlobal Projects: Network of
Young Women Activitists against
Violence against Women. See web site:
http://projects.takingitglobal.org/
genderviolence, accessed 20 January
2003.
30 The Youth Coalition, Ottawa,
Ontario, Canada. Web site:
www.youthcoalition.org, accessed
20 January 2003.
31 For example, the costs of an HIV/AIDS
preventive education programme in
country with low prevalence may be
high relative to the immediate benefits.
However, the risk of spread in an uninformed
population is greatly increased
with enormous potential consequences.
32 Costs are not the same as expenditures.
Administrative costs, private costs and
opportunity costs are often omitted
from analyses. Modes of financing
(e.g., transfers) are variously, and often
improperly, accounted. See: Knowles,
and J. Behrman. 2003. Background
paper (edited version March 2003)
the Expert Meeting on Assessing the
Economic Benefit of Investing in Youth
in Developing Countries, National
Research Council, Washington, D.C.,
15 October 2003.
33 Correia, M., and W. Cunningham, W.
2003. Caribbean Youth Development:
Issues and Policy Directions. Washington,
D.C.: The World Bank; and Cunningham,
W. 2003. Presentation at the Expert
Meeting on Assessing the Economic
Benefit of Investing in Youth in
Developing Countries, National
Research Council, Washington, D.C.,
15 October 2003.
34 It is easier to estimate social than
private costs as the latter component
inputs and their prices vary.
35 The financial costs include child support
payments, the publicly paid health costs
for the mother and child, government
transfers for aid to poor families and to
foster care. Economic costs include tax
revenues foregone by lowered future
income of the mother and the child,
administrative resources diverted to
providing social services, lost benefits
from alternative uses of health care
funds, economic costs of increases in
crime related to reduced education
and employment prospects and other
reduced contributions to society by the
child and adolescent mother. For additional
references and details, see:
Correia and Cunningham 2003; and
Cunningham 2003. Variations in social
services provided and income levels
(and the portion directed to child
support) account for the differences
in national estimates.
36 Buvinic, M. 1998. “The Costs of
Adolescent Childbearing: Evidence
from Chile, Barbados, Guatemala and
Mexico.” Studies in Family Planning 29(2):
201-209.
37 The biological father is less likely to be
present and more of the women are
living as boarders outside their own or
their parents’ home. Unlike in the United
States (see: Buvinic 1998 for references),
future marital chances are not affected. The
pattern of extended single-motherhood
for young mothers does not hold in
these Latin American settings.
38 In Mexico, two thirds of adolescent
mothers were children of women who
were themselves adolescent mothers.
39 Population-based surveys would be the
most reliable, though costly, method.
Most information comes from measures
at antenatal centres but young mothers
may be less likely to use them.
40 Cited in: Knowles and Behrman 2003,
p. 41. This estimate contains a significant
time discount for a gain of 34.6
disability-adjusted life years that are
realized 5-8 years after infection.
41 Marseille, E., P. B. Hoffman, and J. G.
Kahn. 2002. “HIV Prevention before
HAART in Sub-Saharan Africa.” The
Lancet. 2002 359(9320): 1851-1856.
42 This point was forcefully argued by
P. Piot, D. Zewdie, and T. Türmen (2003.
“HIV/AIDS Prevention and Treatment.”
The Lancet 360[9326]: 86) in their
rejoinder to the Marseille, Hoffman
and Khan 2002 article.
43 Benefits included saved disability adjusted
life years, reductions in secondary infections
of partners of the averted case and
reduced annual medical care costs.
44 Marek, T., and J.M. Del Rosso, T. 1996.
Class Action: Improving School
Performance in the Developing World
through Better Health and Nutrition.
Washington, D.C.: The World Bank.
Cited in: Knowles and Behrman 2003.
45 WHO. 1996. “Research to Improve
Implementation and Effectiveness of
School Health Programmes,”
(WHO/HPR/HEP/96.3). Geneva: WHO.
Cited in: Knowles and Behrman 2003.
The reviews show high returns (in the
area of 18-20:1) to anti-smoking interventions,
consistent with the high rates
of prevalence and associated long-term
mortality and morbidity.
46 This is the upper range of estimates for
needs to meet the education-related
Millennium Development Goals and is
based on applying normative investment
standards related to national GNP. A
range of estimates from $2.4 billion,
including UNICEF’s estimate of $9.1 billion,
is noted. See: Devarajan, S. 2002.
“External Finance and the Millennium
Development Goals.” Presentation at the
International Seminar, “Latin America
and the Caribbean: Challenges before
the Millennium Development Goals,”
organized by the Inter-American
Development Bank, Economic
Commission for Latin America and the
Caribbean, the World Bank, and UNDP,
Washington, D.C., 10-11 June 2002.
47 The plausible range of estimates of
returns, depending on assumptions
about annual discount rates and component
returns, was from 2.77 to 25.63
times the costs. See: Knowles and
Behrman 2003, Ch. 6.
48 The uncertainty in this estimate was
considerably higher; the range was 8.14
to 1,764.
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