No country today—even those considered the wealthiest and most developed—can claim to be fully inclusive, where all people have equal opportunities and protections, and fully enjoy their human rights.

Sexual and reproductive health is a universal right
Having the information, power and means to decide whether, when and how often one becomes pregnant is a universal human right. That is what 179 governments agreed at the International Conference on Population and Development in 1994.

A universal right is one that applies to everyone, everywhere, regardless of income, ethnicity, place of residence or any other characteristic. But the reality is that today, across the developing world, that right is far from universally realized, with hundreds of millions of women still struggling to obtain information, services and supplies to prevent a pregnancy or to give birth safely.

Whether a woman is able to exercise her reproductive rights depends in part on whether she lives in a city or a rural area, how much education she has and whether she is affluent or poor.

Economic inequality correlates with inequalities in sexual and reproductive health
Within most developing countries, women in the poorest 20 per cent of the population have, for example, the least access to sexual and reproductive health services, including contraception, while women at the top of the wealth scale generally have access to a fuller range of high-quality services.

The unmet demand for family planning in developing countries is generally greatest among women at the bottom of the wealth scale. Without access to contraception, poor women, particularly those who are less educated and live in rural areas, are at heightened risk of unintended pregnancy. This results in greater health risks and lifelong economic repercussions for herself and her children.

Social institutions that put women and girls at a disadvantage in key spheres of their lives also put them at a disadvantage in entering the labour force.

Laws can exclude women
Laws can reflect or reinforce discriminatory norms and attitudes that block women’s access to the labour force or drag down their earnings relative to those of men. In 18 countries, men can legally prevent their wives from working outside the home, according to the World Bank. Laws in some countries limit women’s access to banking and credit, which can limit their earnings potential.

Laws—or their absence or inadequate enforcement—can affect the health and well-being of women, and thus influence women’s labour-force participation and their ability to earn an income. Forty-six of 173 countries examined in a World Bank report had no domestic violence laws, and 41 had no laws pertaining to sexual harassment. The World Bank also found laws protecting against “economic violence” are rare. Economic violence occurs when a woman is deprived of the economic means to leave an abusive relationship, because her partner either controls the economic resources or prevents the woman from having or keeping a job.

Pervasive gender inequality in categories of work
Statistics on overall labour-force participation rates mask substantial inequalities in the types of work that women and men are undertaking and the economic risks that some categories of workers face.

Once women are in the labour force, they account for a larger share of work in household enterprises and a smaller share of waged or salaried employees than their male counterparts.

When women are employed, their additional responsibilities for household work and care mean that they work longer days than men. In developing countries, women spend an average of nine hours and 20 minutes per day on paid and unpaid work, compared with men, who spend an average of eight hours and seven minutes per day on paid and unpaid work.

Motherhood penalty
In every part of the world, mothers who are in the labour-force earn less than women who do not have children. The motherhood wage penalty may linger even after children are grown, because mothers are likely to lose ground in earnings for taking time off during pregnancy or after giving birth.

Employers’ expectations about women becoming pregnant can contribute to the gender wage gap. According to Dr. Hilary Lips of Radford University, employers may justify paying women less because of a perception that women lack commitment to their jobs when they have the added work of family. ILO reports, some employers perceive all women as potential mothers and pass them over for more challenging assignments, or even promotions, because of a risk of unexpected pregnancy-related leave.

Lack of maternity leave or guaranteed job retention forces many women to choose between participating in the labour force and giving birth, or between their productive and reproductive roles.

Vicious cycle of lower earnings and diminished capacities
Inequality—regardless of the type—is the product of a range of forces in society that interact and create sets of constraints or behavioural boundaries for individuals. These constraints and boundaries limit options, access to resources and choices.

Gender inequality is one such force that results in constraints and boundaries for half the world’s population. Many of the inequalities in sexual and reproductive health and rights are intertwined with, or even driven by, gender inequality.

Worldwide, women’s earnings are lower than those of men. Lower earnings stem from gender inequality in education and health, and from unequal protection of rights. These inequalities result in diminished capacities for women, as well as in a more limited range of options and opportunities for jobs and livelihoods.
And, with lower earnings, women have fewer resources for critical services, such as family planning, which could empower them to enter the labour force and earn more once they are employed. This situation sets off a vicious cycle that can prevent women, their children and their children’s children from rising out of poverty.